Lawsonia inermis, henna, one of the plants found only in the Song of Solomon.
Juglans persica, English walnut, another plant restricted to the Song of Solomon.
SOLOMON'S PLANT LIFE
Plant Lore and Image in the Solomonic
Writings
Lytton John Musselman
More plants and plant products, 34, are associated with Solomon than with any
other Bible character. Eighteen plants and/or their products unique to Solomonic
writings are discussed here. Plants found nowhere else in the Bible are algum wood,
caper, henna, saffron, and walnut. In addition, Solomon's image of Almond (prunus dulcis) flowers;
the apple tree for human stature; hyssop ecology; gourds, lilies and pomegranates as
decorations; pomegranate flesh for ruddiness; fragrance of mandrake fruits; olive
wood in construction; spice tree, and palm and wheat for feminine beauty is unique
among Bible authors. Solomon's expertise in natural history was the basis of
Solomon's House in Francis Bacon's New Atlantis and provided a widely accepted
model for science at the beginning of the Enlightenment.
Introduction
There are two noted botanists in the Bible. The first is Jotham who delivered a
remarkable lecture on plants on the slopes of Mount Gerizim (Judges 9(1) ) drawing
upon well-known features of figs, grapes, olives, and thorns. The second is King
Solomon.
Son of the warrior king David who brought Israel to its zenith of military power,
Solomon reigned from approximately 1015-975 BC. This was an unparalleled time
of economic prosperity (II Chronicles 9: 13-28) with concomitant advances in
literature and public building. These accomplishments are personally exemplified in
the wisdom, songs, construction of the temple and palaces, and writing of the
reigning monarch, Solomon.
Solomon authored several parts of biblical canon including Psalm 127. Portions of
the book of Proverbs are ascribed to him as well (1:1; 10:1a, and 25:1). I have
included the book of Ecclesiastes in this study although Bible scholars now
generally agree that it was written long after Solomon's reign. The author of 1005
songs (I Kings 4:32), only one survives, the magnificent Song of Solomon. Extra
biblical literature, apparently lost(2) includes The Book of the Annals of Solomon (I
Kings 11:41), Records of Nathan the Prophet, Prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite,
and Visions of Iddo the Seer (II Chronicles 9:29), that were accounts of Solomon
and his activities.
It is in the Song of Solomon where the naturalist king's botanical expertise is best
displayed. There are references to 23 different plants/plant products in this short
book of eight chapters. Hapax legomena (unique words in the Bible) in this book
include caper, henna, saffron, and walnut. The prophet Isaiah mentions more (25)
but this book is eight times longer than Canticles.
Solomon's father David had a deep appreciation for nature. Several of his Psalms
are celebrations of the creation. Perhaps the love of nature, especially plants, came
by way of David. The Qu'ran also records David and Solomon's understanding of
nature but emphasizes animals; plants are not mentioned (The Ant 27: 14-21).
Solomon did more than just use plants and gardens, however. "He described plant
life, from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop that grows out of walls. He also
taught about animals and birds, reptiles and fish." (I Kings 4: 33-34). In short, the
Scriptures present Solomon as a student and teacher of natural history.
His pattern inspired Francis Bacon. At the beginning of the Enlightenment in
England, Solomon was held up as an example for the newly developing investigative
sciences(3). In New Atlantis Bacon(4) describes a king with the name of Solamona
who in the tradition of his biblical predecessor establishes a kind of research center,
called Salomon's [Solomon's] House. According to Bacon, "It is dedicated to the
study of the works and creatures of God" The early establishment of the College of
Physicians in London was known as "Solomon's House" and was an outgrowth of
this idea.
Despite the fame of Solomon as a student of Natural History, there are few studies
on his unique use of plants and plant products(5). Eighteen plants are discussed in
this paper. These include only the hapax legomena and plants for which Solomon's
usage is unique among biblical authors. I have drawn heavily upon earlier works on
Bible plants as well as recent literature as well as data from my work in the Middle
East. Plants are arranged alphabetically by their English names.
ALGUM WOOD
Mentioned only in connection with Solomon's construction of the temple in II
Chronicles 2:8; 9:10-11 and I Kings 10: 11-12, this tree and its timber remain the
most mysterious of all Bible trees. Different Bible versions disagree on the
translation of the Hebrew word algum or almug, using sandalwood, juniper or some
variation of algum.
From the verse and its context, it seems that the almug tree was native to Lebanon
as it is mentioned with the better known Lebanese timbers, cedar and pine (more
accurately, cypress as Cupressus sempervirens is assumed to be the tree translated
pine in many verses). In I Kings 10: 11, it is recorded that the ships of King Hiram
(king of Tyre) brought gold and "great cargoes of almug-wood and precious
stones." For this reason, some Bible students have thought that the almug tree was
native to southern Arabia. Greenfield and Mayrhofer(6) note there is little textual
basis for including 'Ophir' with almug wood. Furthermore, the fact that Hiram's
ships brought gold as well as almug wood does not necessarily imply that almug
wood came from Arabia, only that it was transported by Hiram's men. These same
men brought other products as well.
One possibility for almug wood is box tree, Buxus balearica Lam. (=B. longifolia
Boiss.) because large box trees were known from the Lebanon Range; its wood is
mentioned in ancient documents(7). Greenfield and Mayrhofer record a mountain
called "Boxwood Mountain" in Lebanon. Boxwood was highly valued by Egyptians
for furniture(8). Hepper(9) considers the box tree of the Bible (perhaps the tree
mentioned in Isaiah 41: 19 and 60:13) to be Buxus sempervirens L. but this species
is unknown from Lebanon(10). The Akkadian word for boxwood is different from
that of almug(11) weakening the argument that box tree could be the elusive almug
wood.
What, then, is almug wood? Various scholars give Juniperus(12), Aquilaria(13),
Pterocarpus(14) or Santalum or Pinus(15) as almug. Linguistically(16), the original
word is Akkadian and indicates a valuable timber from Lebanon in several ancient
documents.
To date, no one has offered Taxus baccata L. (Taxaceae) as almug wood despite
the fact that it grows in Lebanon/Syria(17) and is known from Egyptian carvings of
the eighteenth dynasty.(18)
Another possibility is that the almug tree is now extinct. I Kings 10:12 notes that
exceptionally large quantities of the word were imported. Was this the end of the
almug tree?
Whatever its true identity, almug wood was obviously of high quality and durable as
it was used for musical instruments. Could this wood from Lebanon be the wood
used in King Solomon's carriage. (Song of Songs 3:9)(19)?
Almond (prunus dulcis)
The motif of the Almond (prunus dulcis), Amygdalus communis L., for the construction of the
candlestick in the tabernacle is well known (Exodus 25) as is the resurrection
symbolism in Aaron's Almond (prunus dulcis) rod that budded (Numbers 17). Solomon, however, is
the only author to allude to the masses of white flowers of the Almond (prunus dulcis) (Ecclesiastes
12:5) in one of the best known soliloquies on old age and death.
APPLE
The word translated apple in Proverbs 25:11 (one of the proverbs of Solomon),
Song of Solomon 2:3, 5; 7:8b; and 8:5 and Joel 1: 12 is the Hebrew word tappuah.
To meet the features described in these verses, the tree must be attractive and have
a tasty, fragrant fruit. In describing the apple tree as growing among the forest trees
(Song of Solomon 2:3), the author may be referring to the large, showy masses of
flowers of this fruit tree in contrast to the forest trees. Or, the imagery may be
similar to that of the Cedar of Lebanon when used to described prominent persons
(e.g., Ezekiel 31: 2-3, Amos 2: 9). By using this analogy, the Beloved is referring to
the unique beauty and character of her Lover, a theme often repeated in this book.
The New American Standard Bible (NASB) gives an alternative translation of
tappuah as apricot. This is not accepted by some students of Bible plants(20).
Moldenke and Moldenke(21) cite older works and come to the conclusion that the
apricot is tappuah. A village called Beth Tappuah ("house of apples") is mentioned
as one of the associated settlements of Hebron (Joshua 15: 53). This is a region
where today many apricots are grown. Further evidence for apricots might be the
link with raisin cakes in Song of Solomon 2: 5. Both could be stored as dried food.
The verse in Proverbs 25:11 (one of the proverbs of Solomon) refers to "...apples
of gold in pictures of silver" which could be an allusion to an apricot tree with
golden fruits and silvery leaves. However, as Zohary and Hopf(22) point out,
neither apples nor apricots are native to the region. Since apricot was apparently not
introduced to the Middle East until Roman times, it seems plausible that the plant
described by Solomon is the common apple (Pyrus malus L.). Dried apples have
been found in Kadesh Barnea (Negev region of Israel) from the tenth century BC
indicating that apples were either grown in oases(23) or that dried apples were items
of commerce from apple-growing regions further north.
CALAMUS
Exodus 30: 23-25, Song of Solomon 4:14, Isaiah 43: 24, Jeremiah 6:20, and Ezekiel
27:19 are the only references to an unusual plant translated as "sweet cane",
"calamus", "sweet myrtle" and in other ways indicative of the confusion over which
plant is intended. The Hebrew word, qaneh, indicates a fragrant plant with an
upright aspect. The verses in the prophets (op. cit.) clearly indicate the value of
calamus and the fact that it was widely traded with nations in Asia. Two plants have
been suggested.
The first is a widespread plant of wetlands in the northern hemispheres of both the
Old and New Worlds, Acorus calamus L. (Araceae). The rhizome has a peculiar
sweet, lingering aroma suitable as a "carrier" in a perfume. Motley(24) suggests that
A. calamus is the calamus mentioned in Exodus 30 for the anointing oil applied to
priests and objects in the tabernacle. Milne and Milne(25) state that A. calamus was
found in the tombs of the Pharaohs but cite no reference. Acorus calamus is not
listed in a modern treatment of perfumery(26) but is still used in medicine and
cosmetics(27).
The second candidate is lemon grass. These are species of the genus Cymbopogon
(Poaceae), most likely C. citratus (DC) Stapf. although several species are widely
grown in tropical regions for their aroma and flavor. As the oil of lemon grass can
be sensitizing to the skin(28), it seems a less likely candidate for the biblical calamus
than A. calamus.
CAPER
The caper, Capparis spinosa L., Capparaceae, is found in only one Bible verse,
Ecclesiastes 12: 5 although the NIV translates the Hebrew ab'ionah as "desire".
This chapter is a well-known allegory of old age with reference to sight, hearing,
white hair, and eventually, death. Included in the list of features of old age is when
" . . . the caperberry is ineffective" (NASB), likely a reference to the use of the
caper fruit, technically a berry, as an aphrodisiac.
GOURD
Gourd or colycinth is considered by all Bible scholars to be Citrullus colycinthus
(L.) Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae), is a common vine found in the drier parts of the
Middle East. Colycinth creeps along the ground and has leaves which vaguely
resemble those of the grape. The fruit is about the size of an orange with a
yellowish rind, greenish pulp that is extremely bitter and light brown seeds. Figures
of gourds were carved into the cedar wood in Solomon's temple (I Kings 6:18a.);
they are not mentioned in Ezekiel's temple. Or perhaps the vines were used along
with the small flowers and fruits. The gourd is the only poisonous plant displayed in
the temple.
HENNA
Henna, Lawsonia inermis L. (Lythraceae), is a much branched shrub that grows to
a height of about ten meters. Leaves are small and elliptic. The individual flowers,
borne in the spring, are small but produced in large masses and are extremely
fragrant. The dried flowers retain the heavy scent for a long time. Today henna is
often grown as an ornamental in the tropics and subtropics. Probably not native to
Israel it may have been grown in the subtropical En Gedi oasis(29). The intense
fragrance of the henna is also suggested in Songs of Songs 4:13 where it is
mentioned with spikenard. Solomon is the only Bible author to mention henna,
another example of a Solomonic hapax legomenon.
The main use of the henna is as a cosmetic. Today the highest quality henna in the
Middle East comes from Iran. The leaves are dried and crushed into a fine powder.
This powder is mixed with water and allowed to sit for two days to make a paste
that forms a reddish dye and is then applied to the fingernails, hands, and feet as an
ornamentation often with intricate designs. Henna is also used to dye the hair. Both
uses are very common in several countries, most notably Sudan. In Bible days the
cosmetic use may also have been widespread. The reference in Deuteronomy 21:12
may allude to the need for the colored hair and nails to grow out because the
children of Israel were proscribed from any sort of tattoo or body marking.
HYSSOP
Hyssop is one of the better known plants of the Bible referred to ten places in the
Old Testament(30) and two in the New (John 19:29(31), Hebrews 9: 19) of which
one is a reference to the Old. This plant, or a product of this plant, formed an
important part of the Passover (Exodus 12:22), ceremonial cleansing from skin
disease (Leviticus 14), and the red heifer offering (Numbers 19). It is perhaps in
reference to the Leviticus 14 passager that David mentions hyssop in Psalm 51:7.
The New Testament reference is in John 19:29 (discussed below). Hebrews 9:19
refers to the ceremonial cleansing of the children of Israel with hyssop.
Interestingly, this use of hyssop is not specifically mentioned for this incident in the
Old Testament, but may have been a common instrument for handling a sponge
(see comments below on John 19:29). The remaining reference, I Kings 4:33, is the
only Old Testament verse that does not mention hyssop in a ceremonial use. It is
also one of the most puzzling verses dealing with this plant. Here Solomon gives us
insight into the ecology of hyssop not found elsewhere in the Bible.
Hyssop, ezov in Hebrew, must have the following features according to Scripture's
usage. It should grow on a "wall" (I Kings 4:33). The plant and/or its extracts
should be useful for purgatives(32). In both Leviticus 14 and Numbers 19, hyssop is
associated with cedar wood implying a purgative use(33). Moreover, it may have
been commercially available perhaps in the same way it is today (see discussion
below). This could explain the use of the plant by the children of Israel in the Nile
Delta where its occurrence would be rare. It is not certain (as it might seem on first
glance) that it must be able to hold moisture, like a paint brush. Wool or another
material could have been used as a sponge in the application of the blood of the
Passover lamb to the door (Exodus 12), the hyssop serving as an instrument to
handle the sponge in order to avoid losing some of the moisture in applying it. As
other suffrutescent plants could be used in the same way, it seems likely that the
use of hyssop may have combined the characters of water retention, support and its
aromatic constituents.
For all of these uses, Origanum syriacum L. (Lamiaceae), a plant known in English
as Syrian hyssop and a relative of the well-known kitchen herbs oregano and
marjoram, seems the most likely candidate. Yet, modern Bible scholars still express
uncertainty about the actual identity of hyssop. Some(34) suggest that it could be
caper (Capparis spinosa) a very common shrub in the Middle East. The only
evidence for this is the verse in 1 Kings 4:33 referring to hyssop (ezov) growing
from a wall. This has often been assumed to be a masonry wall(35), similar to those
commonly seen in old cities in the Middle East and Mediterranean region where
caper is so common(36). The problem is that Origanum syriacum, in contrast to
caper (Hebrew ab'ionah), rarely if ever grows out of stone walls. A further problem
with caper is how it is used. The fruit, a soft berry-like structure when mature, was
apparently used as an aphrodisiac (see caper above). There is little likelihood
Solomon confused these two plants.
Further evidence is present use. Palestinians I have interviewed never use any part
of the caper plant for food or condiment. Those who do use capers were introduced
to them in Europe and purchase imported capers in local stores!
Just the opposite is true of O. syriacum. Known in Arabic as za'atar it is one of the
most widely used and valued herbs of the Palestinians. A typical Palestinian
breakfast is bread dipped in olive oil and za'atar. It is available in dried form in
almost any Arab market. I asked the Samaritans on Mount Gerizim which plant
they use for sprinkling in their Passover rites, and their answer was za'atar further
strengthening the argument for Syrian hyssop.
How can the plant growing out of the wall be O. syriacum? The Hebrew word used
in I Kings 4:33 is qir, and while it is the word frequently used for a wall(37) this use
does not preclude reference to natural ledges such as are common in the mountains.
In this verse, Solomon is speaking of natural history, not man-made objects so that
reference to a masonry wall would be out of context. Origanum syriacum is most
frequent on rocky ledges and outcrops in the mountains, rock formations which can
reasonably be described as walls.
The word in John 19:29(38) is the same as that in Hebrews 19 and there seems little
doubt that hyssop is meant. The problem seems to be in how the hyssop was used.
There are several possibilities. The first is that the sponge was put on a long stalk of
the hyssop plant. This is unlikely due to the short stature of hyssop. The Greek
words meaning "binding it to hyssop" might also suggest that the hyssop plant was a
kind of holder for the sponge(39). This is plausible because of the growth habit of
the hyssop where a sponge could be put in the center of the much branched plant.
Why this would be necessary is unclear. Perhaps there is also a connection with the
use of hyssop as a broom (in this case with scarlet wool, which would function very
well for sprinkling of water) in Hebrews 9: 19.
LILY
The lily is mentioned only in connection with the ornamentation of the temple (I
Kings 7, II Chronicles 4), the healing of Israel (Hosea 14), the sermon on the mount
(Matthew 6 and Luke 12), and eight references in the Song of Solomon. It is not
possible to identify with certainty the plant referred to as the lily(40). Apparently the
word translated lily can be used to describe any attractive flower.
Solomon's prescription of lilies for decoration on the pillars and laver of the temple
is problematical. Hepper(41) has suggested that they are Nymphaea species, the
large, showy water lilies the children of Israel saw in the Nile River in Egypt and
which have an important place in Egyptian imagery. This seems incongruous,
however, as the imagery of Egypt had little place in either the tabernacle or temple.
All of the other plant images used in Solomon's temple-Almond (prunus dulcis), gourd, palm,
pomegranate-are plants of the land. Their use would be consonant with the
deuteronomic blessings associated with the land.
MANDRAKE
The mandrake, Mandragora officinalis L. (Solanaceae), is mentioned only in
Genesis 30:14-16 and Song of Solomon 7:13 although it is a common plant in many
parts of Israel. The small yellow fruits have a very sweet, attractive odor(42). This
is the only reference to mandrake fruits in the Bible.
MYRRH
Myrrh is the dried resin of several species of Commiphora (Burseraceae), shrubs or
small trees of the arid and semi-arid regions of East Africa, Arabia, and the Indian
subcontinent. Different species have different uses. Some are used medicinally(43)
and others for their fragrance(44). Recent work indicates that C. myrrha (Nees)
Engl. has opiate qualities(45). This helps interpret Mark 15:23 where Jesus, on the
cross, was offered vinegar mingled with myrrh but refused the drug.
These two different myrrhs, medicinal and fragrant, are both translated from the
same Hebrew word mor. The scented myrrh is probably Commiphora guidotti
Chiov.(46)
Odor of myrrh permeates the pages of Solomon's writings with more references
than any other Bible author. Song of Solomon has seven references to myrrh.
In the single reference in Proverbs 7, the harlot refers to her bed as having been
sprinkled with " . . . myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon" (7: 17). Myrrh is used in a similar
way in Song of Solomon, that is, as a personal perfume with erotic overtones (5: 5,
5:13). There is a guild of plants associated both with the harlot in Proverbs as well
as with the lovers in Song of Solomon. These include cassia, aloes (not the bitter
aloe of the New Testament) and myrrh. Myrrh is also linked with frankincense in
other verses.
Myrrh is sometimes confused with the plant known as balm or balm of Gilead
(Hebrew tesriy or tsoriy) in the Bible. Zohary(47) and Hepper(48) consider balm to
be a species of Commiphora while Stol(49) cautions against confusing tsoriy with
basem. There is strong historical precedence for this confusion as Josephus(50)
suggests that the Queen of Sheba brought a plant of Commiphora when she visited
Solomon. However, myrrh was used much earlier in Israel as a component of the
sacred anointing oil (Exodus 30). Myrrh oil has been found at En Gedi(51) and
some shrubs were planted there several years ago where they appear to be thriving.
Other plants have been translated as balm that are not species of Commiphora. A
handbook for Bible translators equates balm with Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.
(Zygophyllaceae)(52), perhaps because the oil from the seed was used in embalming
in Egypt(53). However, the best candidate for balm of Gilead appears to be Cistus
incanus L. (including C. creticus and C. villosus) (Cistaceae). Cistus incanus is a
common and widespread plant in Israel and the Mediterranean region.
The extract of C. incanus is ladanum, or labdanum. It was widely used in the
Mediterranean for a variety of medicines. Recent research has documented the
medical efficacy of some of the compounds in ladanum(54). There is strong biblical
evidence that balm of Gilead is C. incanus as well. The weeping prophet, Jeremiah,
refers twice to the balm from Gilead (Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11). While this could be
Commiphora that had been transported there, a more natural explanation is
ladanum. Stronger evidence is found in Ezekiel 27:17 regarding trade in balm
between Israel and Minnith.
OLIVE
There are about 25 references to the olive tree, Olea europaea L. (Oleaceae) and
more than 160 references to the oil in the scriptures. Olive oil had five main uses in
Bible days: as food, for illumination, as ointment, for oiling the metal or leather of
shields (and by extension as a preservative for other items), and in the manufacture
of soap. It is probably safe to assume that when oil is mentioned in the Scriptures, it
is always olive oil. Interestingly, we have no record in the Scriptures of olives
themselves being eaten.
The olive tree does not become very tall and lives for up to one thousand years
producing fruit during its long life. Trunks often become gnarled, bent and hollow
inside, yet the tree continues to produce fruit. Because of the growth pattern, the
wood is not suitable for building. It is hard with an attractive grain. Small souvenirs
are made from it today. The wood is mentioned only in I Kings 6 in the
construction of several temple articles. It would be difficult to find a piece of olive
wood large enough to make a door. However, as these two articles (the seraphim
and the doors) would be covered with gold, the imperfections in the olive wood
could not be seen. This raises the question of the value of using the olive wood,
which has beautiful grain and color, for these items.
PALMTREE
Perhaps the most distinctive tree in Bible lands is the date palm, Phoenix
dactylifera L. (Arecaceae), with its towering, unbranched trunk crowned with
immense spreading leaves several meters long. The imagery in Song of Solomon 7:7
is unique in the Bible. It likens the feminine charms of the lover to the features of
the date palm both in stature and fruitfulness.
Solomon also employed the motif of the date palm in the temple as ornaments for
the doors and interior walls (I Kings 6: 29, 32; II Chronicles 3: 4). In the temple
described in Ezekiel, the only botanical decoration is the palm tree inscribed upon
the posts of the chambers, the gate, and the posts of various gates (Ezekiel 40: 26,
31, 34, 37.)
POMEGRANATE
Of the six species in Deuteronomy 8:8, pomegranate, Punica granatum L.
(Punicaceae), may be the most beautiful. Pomegranates figure prominently in three
places in the Scriptures: the garment of the high priest (Exodus 28: 33), as a garland
on the temple pillars, and in the Song of Solomon. In Solomon's temple there were
200 pomegranates engraved on the capitals of the two pillars located at the front of
the temple (I Kings 7: 42; II Chronicles 4: 13). These pomegranates are also
mentioned in Jeremiah 52: 22-23.
In Song of Solomon 4:3 and 6:7 the red interior of the fruit is likened to the temples
of the Beloved. These are the only biblical references to the red, juicy seeds of the
pomegranate. The unique seed coat in pomegranate is fleshy and is widely used in
the Middle East to prepare a pleasantly sour, refreshing drink. This may be the
meaning in Song of Solomon 8:2 while in Song of Solomon 6:11 and 7:12 the
attractive bell-shaped flowers are referred to.
SAFFRON
Saffron, Crocus sativus L., in Song of Solomon 4:14 is another Solomonic hapax
legomenon. Here it is in a garden, no doubt simply for its ornamental beauty as
there is no indication in the Bible of it being used as a spice. Leaves of saffron are
grass-like and only a few mm wide. Flowers are showy and very fragrant like the
other plants with which it is associated. The most striking feature of the flower is
the large, drooping stigmata(55).
SPICES
Three different Hebrew words are translated "spice", "spices", or "spicery" in
English Bibles. Nekoth is found only in Genesis 37:25 and 43:11 as one of the gifts
sent to the ruler of Egypt by Jacob to curry favor in order to purchase grain during
a famine. This is most likely a gum resin, probably from a species of
Astragalus(56).
Cam is used only in Exodus 30:34 in the compounding of the sacred incense. The
plant involved is unknown. The word in the remaining references, including all
those in the Solomonic writings, is besem or bosem and can be used for almost any
fragrant or pleasantly pungent compound. All of the references in Song of Solomon
deal with a pleasant fragrance except for 8:2 where spiced wine is mentioned and
the spice plants(?) of 4: 14 and 6:2.
One of the gifts the Queen of Sheba presented to Solomon was a large quantity of
spices. In fact, "There had never been such spices as that the queen of Sheba gave
to King Solomon" (II Chronicles 9:9). It is not possible to ascertain what kinds of
spices these were, whether or not they were to be used for flavoring or incense.
There are two gardens in Song of Solomon 6. The first is in verse 2 and is a garden
of spices and lilies. Verse 11 is a garden of nuts, located in the valley and associated
with grapes and pomegranates. The emphasis in the garden of spices is on feeding
(mentioned twice) and in the garden of nuts on what is seen (also mentioned twice).
Stol(57), citing others, indicates spices in 5:1 may be a tree.
WALNUT
There is little doubt among bible scholars that the nut trees mentioned in Song of
Solomon 6:11, another hapax legomenon, are Juglans persica L. Like apple and
apricot, walnut is not native to the Middle East. It first appears in palynological
(pollen) remains about the second millennium BC(58).
WHEAT
Wheat, Triticum spp., is mentioned as one of the payments sent to Hiram, king of
Tyre, in return for timber for the temple and possibly Solomon's personal house
("House of the forest of Lebanon") in I Kings 5:11. Unique in the Bible is the
allusion of the Bride's waist as " . . . a mound of wheat encircled by lilies." (Song of
Solomon 7: 2b). While unseemly words for a modern suitor, this language obviously
conveys poetic meaning lost in the twentieth century. It has been suggested(59) that
the color of the wheat is indicated although the strong suggestion of fruitfulness also
seems obvious. Barley, always valued at half the cost of wheat(60) is not mentioned
in Song of Solomon perhaps because it is too plebeian.
Acknowledgments
Much of the research reported here was conducted during the tenure of a Fulbright
awards at the University of Khartoum 1982-1984, An Najah University 1986-1987,
and the University of Jordan 1987-1988. Henk P. Medema provided invaluable
assistance in original languages. Professor Charles Holman aided with obscure
bibliographic references.
NOTES
Reprinted with permission from: Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith
51(10): 1-8, 1999.
1. Unless noted, all quotations from the Holy Scriptures are from the New
International Version.
2. Bacon seems to have been familiar with this lost literature for his King Salamona
tells Bacon "...we have some parts of his [Solomon's] works which with you are
lost; namely, that Natural History which he wrote of all plants, from the cedar
Libanus to the moss that growth out of the wall; and of all things that have life and
motion." Francis Bacon. 1952. Advancement of Learning, Novum Organum, New
Atlantis. (Great Books of the Western World. Volume 30. Chicago: Encyclopaedia
Britannica.)
3. J. J. Bono. 1995. The Word of God and the Languages of Man. Interpreting
Nature in Early Modern Science and Medicine. 1: Ficino to Descartes. (Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press.) and C. Webster. 1975. The Great Instauration.
Science, Medicine and Reform 1626-1660. (New York: Holmes and Meier.) Both
of these volumes discuss "Solomon's House" and its relationship to the development
of scientific societies. The literature on Bacon and his influence on modern science
is vast and reviewed in these two books.
4. Francis Bacon. 1936. Advancement of Learning, Novum Organum, New
Atlantis. (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. Great Books of the Western World
Volume 30.)
Plants and plant products used in the Solomonic writings include: Almond (prunus dulcis), almug,
aloe, apple/apricot, barley, calamus, caper, cedar of Lebanon, cinnamon, crocus,
cypress, date palm, fig, flax, frankincense, gall, gourd, grape, henna, hyssop, lign
aloe, lily, mandrake, myrrh, nard, olive, pomegranate, saffron, spices, sycomore fig,
thornbush, walnut and wheat.
6. J. C. Greenfield and M. Mayrhofer. 1967. The 'algumm'/'almuggim' problem
reexamined. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum. 6: 83-89.
7. Greenfield and Mayrhofer, op. cit.
8. R. Meiggs. 1982. Trees and timber in the ancient Mediterranean world.
(Oxford: Clarendon).
9. F. N. Hepper. 1990. Pharaoh's flowers. (London: Her Majesty's Stationery
Office.)
10. M. Zohary, M, C. C. Heyn and D. Heller. 1983. Conspectus Florae Orientalis.
Fascicle 2. (Jerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.)
11. Greenfield and Mayrhofer, op. cit.
12. Anonymous. 1980. Helps for Translators. Fauna and Flora of the Bible. (New
York: United Bible Societies.)
13. I. Löw. 1967. Die Flora der Juden. Volumes I-IV. (Hildeshein: Georg Olms.)
Reprint of 1928 edition. Löw also discusses the tradition in the Mishna of the
mineral coral being almug.
14. M. Zohary. 1982. Plants of the Bible. (Cambridge: University Press). and H.
N. Moldenke and A. L. Moldenke. 1952. Plants of the Bible. (New York: Ronald
Press.) Zohary's book is one of the most useful although designed for the
non-specialist. Moldenke and Moldenke's classic is an extensive compendium on
Bible plants that draws heavily on traditions of the Christian church. However, the
authors apparently had little first hand experience with the Middle East flora.
15. Discussed in Greenfield and Mayrhofer, op. cit.
16. Greenfield and Mayrhofer, op. cit.
17. G. Post. 1932-1933. Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai. Ed. 2. revised and
enlarged by J. E. Dinsmore. (Beirut: American University.)
18. D. M. Dixon. 1974. "Timber in ancient Egypt." Commonwealth Forestry
Review 53: 205-209.
19. King Solomon made for himself the carriage; he made it of wood from
Lebanon. Song of Solomon 3:9.
20. e.g., M. Zohary, op. cit.
21. 21. Moldenke and Moldenke, op. cit.
22. M. Zohary and M. Hopf. 1994. Domestication of Plants in the Old World.
Second Edition. (Oxford: Clarendon.)
23. Zohary and Hopf, op. cit.
24. T. J. Motley. 1994. "The ethnobotany of sweet flag, Acorus calamus
(Araceae)." Economic Botany 48(4): 397-412.
25. L. Milne and M. Milne. 1967. Living Plants of the World. (New York: Random
House.)
26. R. R. Calkin and J. S. Jellinek. 1994. Perfumery. Practice and Principles.
(New York: Wiley.)
27. A. Y. Leung and S. Foster. 1996. Encyclopedia of Common Natural
Ingredients used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics. Second edition. (New York:
Wiley Interscience.)
28. Leung and Foster, op. cit.
29. e.g, "My beloved is unto me a cluster of henna flowers in the vineyards of En
Gedi", Song of Solomon 1:14. En Gedi, an oasis between the Dead Sea and the
precipitous cliffs of the Judean Desert is a place where many medicinal and
cosmetic plants such as myrrh and henna were grown. The climate is tropical and
there is an abundant supply of water.
30. Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4, 6, 49, 51, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33;
Psalm 51:7.
31. M. C. Tenney. 1981. "John." pages 1-203 in: F. E. Gaebelein, General Editor.
The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Volume 9. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan.)
32. A. Fleisher and Z. Fleisher. 1988. "Identification of biblical hyssop and origin of
the traditional use of oregano-group herbs in the Mediterranean region." Economic
Botany 42(2): 232-241.
33. N .Dudai, N. Putievsky, E. Ravid, U. Palevitch, D. and A. H. Halevy. 1992.
"Monoterpene content in Origanum syriacum as affected by environmental
conditions and flowering." Physiologia Plantarum 84: 453-459.
34. E.g., Moldenke and Moldenke, op. cit.
35. L. J. Musselman and H. P. Medema. 1993. Van U is ook de Aarde. De
zwijgende maar machtige boodschap von planten in het heligdom. [Yours (is) also
the Earth. The silent yet powerful language of plants in the sanctuary.] Uitgiverij H.
Medema: Vaassen, Netherlands. 64 pages. Illustrated. (In Dutch).
36. There is a remarkable reference to the power of the caper in destroying
masonry structures in S. A. Fairushina. 1974. "Capparis spinosa L., destructor of
architectural memorials in Uzbekistan." Uzbekistan Biology Journal 5: 39-42.
(Original not seen).
37. E.g. Leviticus 14: 37; 1 Kings 6:5 and many other places.
38. There is a problem of textual criticism here, as one Greek minuscule reads
hussooi, meaning 'on a javelin'; cf. some older Latin translations which read
perticae, 'on a "long" pole'. Moffatt, New English Bible, and J. B. Phillips adopt
this option, but even if it would be the most plausible composition of the >facts (for
which the traditional reading would allow room!), it is probably not what the
Evangelist wrote. See Bruce Metzger e.g., A Textual Commentary to the Greek
New Testament, London / New York: United Bible Society, in loco; who quotes R.
G. Batcher, Basel, Revue Internationale de la Traduction, VII (1961), p. 61. See
also M. C. Tenney (op cit.).
39. F. G. Beetham and P. A. Beetham. 1993. "A note on John 19: 29." Journal of
Theological Studies 41(1): 163-169.
40. Musselman and Medema 1993a, op. cit.
41. F. N. Hepper. 1992. Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Plants. (Grand Rapids:
Baker Book House).
42. A. Fleisher and Z. Fleisher. 1994. "The fragrance of biblical mandrake."
Economic Botany 48(3): 243-251.
43. A. Y. Leung and S. Foster. 1996. Encyclopedia of Common Natural
Ingredients used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics. Second edition. (New York:
Wiley Interscience).
44. R. R. Calkin and J. S. Jellinek. 1994. Perfumery. Practice and Principles.
(New York: Wiley).
45. Science News 149(2): 20. 1996.
46. M. Thulin and P. Claeson. 1991. "The botanical origin of scentd myrrh
(bissabol or habak hadi)." Economic Botany 45(4): 487-494.
47. Zohary 1982, op. cit.
48. Hepper 1992, op. cit.
49. M. Stol. 1979. On Trees, Mountains, and Millstones in the Ancient Near East.
(Leiden: Ex Oriente Lux).
50. Flavius Josephus. 1936. The Works of Flavius Josephus. Translated by William
Whiston. (Philadelphia: Winston.)
51. Hepper 1992, op. cit.
52. Anonymous 1980, op. cit.
53. Hepper 1990, op. cit.
54. A. Danne, F. Peterett and A. Nahrstedt. 1993. "Proanthocyanidins from Cistus
incanus". Phytochemistry 34(4): 1129-1133.
55. The crocus illustrated in Zohary 1982, op. cit., does not have the large,
drooping stigmata nor the grass-like leaves of Crocus sativus and appears to be a
different species from saffron. Hepper (in Planting a Bible Garden, 1987, London:
Her Majesty's Stationery Office) recommends planting saffron from seed.
However, this is not possible as saffron is a sterile triploid and does not produce
seeds.
56. Hepper 1992, op. cit,; Musselman and Medema 1993, op. cit.; Zohary 1982,
op. cit.
57. Stol 1979, op. cit.
58. Zohary and Hopf 1994, op. cit.
59. D. F. Kindow. 1991. "Song of Songs." in: F. E. Gaebelein, General Editor. The
Expositor's Bible Commentary. Volume 5. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan).
60. L. J. Musselman and H. P. Medema. 1993. Laat de Aarde het u Vertellen. De
zwijgende maar machtige boodschap von planten in het land van de Bijbel. [The
Earth Shall Teach You: The silent yet powerful language of plants in the land of the
Bible]. (Vaassen, The Netherlands: Medema). Second printing.
Saffron
Saffron is mentioned in only one verse, Song of Solomon 4:14. Here it is in a garden, no doubt
simply for its ornamental beauty as there is no indication in the Bible of it being used as Saffron,
Crocus sativus, is the most expensive spice known. One kilogram cost over ten thousand dollars!
About 150 saffron flowers are needed to produce one gram of spice. Put another way, 75, 000
flowers (225, 000 stigmata!) are needed for one pound of the final product. Next time you are in the
grocery store, look for saffron. It is about ten dollars for a few threads. These threads are the dried
stigmata of the plant. Spain is the largest producer of commercial Saffron, most of it grown in
Andalucia.
I have seen the saffron harvest in Spain near the village of Membrilla in the La Mancha region in
October. The plants are grown in small plots, less than about one quarter hectare. Leaves of saffron
are grass like and only a few mm wide. However, the flowers are large and showy.They are a
pinkish- purple in color and are borne close to the soil so that harvesting the flowers requires a great
deal of stooping.
The flowers are picked and put in baskets then taken to a house where the style and three- parted
red stigmata are removed from the center of the flower. The stigmata are large and droops between
the petals of the flower. Saffron flowers are fragrant in addition to being showy and it is striking to
see large piles of flowers near the fields where they have been discarded after the stigmata are
removed. Immediately after removal, the stigmata are carefully dried over a charcoal fire giving them
the appearance of dark red threads. They are ready to use as a spice at this stage but have little
flavor if used fresh.
Like other species of crocus, saffron is grown from bulbs. In fact, Crocus sativus is sterile and no
sexual reproduction is known. Numerous studies on the cytology of the plant show that it has
chromosomal aberrations that do not allow it to reproduce.
The bulbs are planted at a depth of about 5 cm in the spring. Numerous flowers will be produced the
first year but the second year is reported to be the most productive. In Iran and Kashmir, also
important saffron producing areas, the bulbs are left for up to 12 years. It takes about one acre of
saffron to produce one pound of spice. After three years, the bulbs are dug and the smaller bulbs
produced at the base of the older bulbs are removed.
I brought some bulbs from Andalucia and have grown them in my garden in Norfolk. Most years, at
least a few flowers are produced in October or early November. From these, I have collected and
dried the stigmata and used them as commercial saffron. The color is the same but the flavor does
not seem as pronounced as the saffron grown in Spain.
A recent paper (Casoria, P., U. Laneri and N. Di Novella. 1996. A preliminary note on an
interesting species of crocus (Crocus longiflorus, Iridaceae) similar to Saffron (C. sativus).
Economic Botany 50(4): Page 971) discusses a wild crocus in the Salerno region of Italy that local
people use like saffron. Chemical tests show that C. longiflorus contains some of the same coloring
and flavoring agents as true saffron. Interestingly, C. longiflorus reproduces sexually, unlike C.
sativus. Further studies might show that the two species are related.
Aquatic Plants in Arid Places
Wetland plants are one of my specialties. They are important in my home area on the shores of the
largest estuary in the world, Chesapeake Bay. I am surrounded by marshes, swamps, bogs and a
diversity of other wetlands. What a contrast to living in Jordan where water itself is an endangered
species! Scarcity of water is a fact of life in most of the Middle East.
So, it is not surprising that few wetland plants are mentioned in the Bible since wetlands occupy such
a small area of bible lands. Jordan is about 80% desert and the rest of the country is also-- dry
making wetlands well defined. Take for example oases and rivers. Both are familiar images in the
Bible.
Plants associated with these wetlands are few yet interesting. Some confusion exists over their
identity. Cane (qaneh in Hebrew) is an example. Of the references to qaneh in four books of the
Old Testament, the plant most frequently referred to is probably Arundo donax or giant cane. It is
ubiquitous where any fresh water is found. Especially evident on hillsides, it marks a place where
there is water even if it is below the surface of the soil. Technically, it is not an aquatic plant but
rather a species which must grow near water where its feet are wet.
Giant cane can be tall, up to 6m. Stems are unbranched, straight and woody. Because of this, giant
cane is used in construction of huts, walls, fences and to make simple flutes or writing pens. It was
also used as a measuring instrument, a kind of yard or meter stick in ancient times. An example is the
man with the measuring reed in his hand in Ezekiel 40, 41 and 42. Apparently, this is giant cane
because of its durability and utility.
In Exodus 30 in the compounding of the anointing oil, the same word is used, qaneh. Clearly a
different plant is intended here, a fragrant cane. The word is translated as calamus, referring to
Acorus calamus from which a perfume base is extracted.
In the New Testament, the Greek word kalamos, from which the Latin Calamus is derived, is used
for cane or reed in such passages as Matthew 11: 48 where a sponge of vinegar was offered to
Jesus on the cross and Mark 15: 19 where the reed was used for beating. In both cases, the plant
that best fits the description is giant cane due to its length and strength.
Kalamos is translated "pen" in III John 13-"I have much to write to you, but I do not want to do so
with pen and ink." With a sharpened point, a piece of giant reed makes a handy writing instrument.
Passages in Revelation with the same word refer to measuring akin to the Ezekiel verses. It is likely
the same plant rather than common reed which is not as strong and stiff.
Another source for making a stylus, or writing instrument is the stems, or culms, of species of Juncus
(rush).
Common reed, Phagmites australis, like giant cane, is also a member of the grass family though
characteristically found in wetter sites throughout the Middle East. It is one of the few plants that
grows throughout most of the world. Large stands are found in the Delta of the Danube near the
Black Sea. In North America, the same species has developed especially aggressive races that are
destroying some natural wetlands. Reaching a height of 4m, it is a hardy plant of marshes though not
as vigorous as giant cane.
Jeremiah 51:31-32 is a graphic description of battles in Babylon, a city located along rivers with
marshes. "One courier follows another and messenger follows messenger to announce to the king of
Babylon that his entire city is captured, the river crossings seized, the marshes set on fire and the
soldiers terrified." The word marshes in the NIV is agam. Babylon's marshes may have been
dominated by common reed which forms dense stands along rivers and in oases.
One such oasis is the famed Azraq Oasis in Jordan which has suffered from reckless draining in
recent years. Further damage has been incurred by the removal of water for the city of Amman. The
permanent lakes at Azraq made it the largest oasis within thousands of square kilometers of desert.
With a lowering of the water table, common reed invaded and today forms the dominant vegetation
in the vastly reduced oasis which, ironically, must be maintained by pumping water into the oasis.
March 19 was a bright, still day when I visited Azraq Oasis with other biologists. Concerned about
the overwhelming dominance of Phragmites that crowded out more desirable species and lowered
diversity of plants and animals, we surveyed the area and then left for the Azraq Preserve office on a
low hill overlooking the marsh. Suddenly the sky was filled with billows of black smoke from the
marsh. The stand of common reed was ablaze. Rushing to the fire, we were rebuffed by the roar and
heat. As the reed burns, water vapor builds up in the stem causing a popping sound. Imagine the
soldiers at the margin of the marsh in Jeremiah 51 terrified as the marsh burns out of control!
While giant cane and common reed are the most widespread of Bible wetland plants, perhaps the
best known is bulrush mentioned in the story of baby Moses (Exodus 2) where the child was hid in
the vegetation along the Nile River.
Still common in parts of the Nile, bulrush or papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), is also found throughout
much of Africa. Papyrus is the source of the English word paper. Paper was made by pounding the
soft stems together. Resembling a grass but in a related family, papyrus has a round stem several
meters tall that bears a spherical mass of tiny flowers on long, flexuous stalks at the top. The thick
stems are filled with cells that contain air, and may be the reason it is called agam (with variations),
meaning absorbent in Hebrew. In some places, ie Exodus 2:3, 5 papyrus is used for cuwph.
This absorbency caused by the large air spaces provided buoyancy in making boats. In an apparent
reference to the Nile, Isaiah 18:1-2 refers to these boats, "Woe to the land of whirring wings [or
locusts] along the rivers of Cush [that is, the region of southern Egypt and adjacent Sudan], which
sends envoys by sea in papyrus boats over the water."
At one time, there was a large population of papyrus in northern Israel in an area that the Bible refers
to as the waters of Merom (Joshua 11:5) or Lake Merom. This swamp, the Hula Swamp, was a
malarial area. The swamp was drained earlier in this century, destroying the habitat of the papyrus,
the northernmost population of this plant in the world. Fortunately, there has been a concerted effort
to restore part of the Hula Swamp and it is now possible to visit the area and see impressive stands
of papyrus.
Paper as a writing material is mentioned in only one place in the Bible. (In Isaiah 19: 7, the Hebrew
word arah is translated paper reed in the KJV, perhaps an illusion to papyrus. The NIV renders this
as "plants along the Nile" which could also be papyrus.) This reference is in II John 12a-"I have
much to write to you, but I do not want to use paper and ink." Chartes, the Greek word used here,
is related to the English word chart. Greeks imported papyrus via the Phoenician town of Byblos,
from which our word Bible and related terms come. Thus, in New Testament times, paper was
known to writers such as the Apostle John.
There are a few additional wetland plants to consider in addition to giant cane, common reed, and
papyrus. Like so many other references it is not possible to state with certainty the botanical names
of these plants. Several candidates are likely, however, for the words translated from the Hebrew
tse'el.
"Under the lotus plant (tse'el) he lies, hidden among the reeds (qaneh)," Job 40:21 and 40:22, "the
lotuses conceal him in their shadow; the poplars by the stream surround him.". The King James
Version translates this verse as, "under the shady (tse'el) trees ('ets)." This description of the
behemoth includes its riverine habitat. It is unfortunate that NIV translators used "lotus plant" in this
verse. Lotus is the common name applied to water lilies, most often Nelumbo lutea. But
it is also the Latin name of a genus of legumes, Lotus. Species of this genus are not aquatic plants.
What is this mysterious plant linked with the likewise enigmatic behemoth?
Tse'el can mean, among other things, stalk or stick--in any case implying something slender. This
could hardly be Nelumbo which has large round, usually floating leaves up to 1m across. A tall,
slender, stick-like plant could be giant cane or common reed which would fit here except that qaneh
is used later in the same verse. Papyrus could conceivably fit the description except that in Job 8: 11
the word achuw is translated papyrus.
Could this mysterious plant be one of the other aquatic plants frequent in the Middle East? In the
context of Job 40, it should have the following features: form a stand dense enough to hide the
behemoth ("...under the lotus plant he lies"); grow in a stream that might flood (.."when the river
rages"); be part of a guild that includes poplars, possibly Populus alba (v. 22); and be a plant
compatible with vegetation found along the Jordan River (v. 23).
Of plants found under such conditions, the most likely is Typha domingensis known in English as
cattail. It forms dense stands and has long, narrow leaves that would be within the circumscription of
the Hebrew word for something slender. The thick heavy rhizomes can withstand flooding and it is
found in the Jordan Valley.
Cedars of Lament
The King of Bible Trees(1)
Would Hiram's lumberjacks recognize where I was(2)? I was in the region's last natural cedar of
Lebanon community (in contrast to planted or maintained groves) on a ridge about 4000 feet above
sea level. The steep slope in front of me dropped precipitously to the fertile valley of the Orontes
River far below. I could see white barley fields and ripening wheat framed by the boughs of the
cedars. Some of these cedars are hundreds of years old, tenaciously anchored in the rocky
mountain(3). Branches and trunks are festooned with lichens, indicators of fresh air on this ridge, the
last stop of moisture laden clouds moving from the sea to the Syrian steppe. Three millennia earlier,
Hiram sent men to harvest cedars of Lebanon in a forest like the one I was in on this June day. I was
harvesting images, they were harvesting timber. After cutting, logs were taken to the sea, rafted in
booms, and floated to Joppa. From Joppa, they were taken overland to Solomon's building projects
in Jerusalem.
Did Hiram's brawny men with their saws and rigging trample the wild peonies like those I saw on this
spring day? Their large pink flowers in sun dappled openings contrasted with the more sacerdotal
grey green of the cedar. Did the crashing trunks of the forest giants smash the numerous wildflowers
of the forest floor? How foolish these questions would seem to the workmen assigned this difficult
and dangerous task in a remote mountain fastness! After all, their mountains were covered with
cedars; they were virtually unlimited on the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges. That was then. Now,
instead of clothing mountain ranges in verdant splendor, these communities are reduced to a few
hundred acres surrounded by an overgrazed and abused landscape. Cedar, a non-flowering seed
plant , a gymnosperm like pine, is another Middle East refugee in its own land.
Like pines, two kinds of branches are found on cedar, known botanically as short shoots and long
shorts. The leaves, or needles, are clustered in groups. Each group of needles is actually a modified
shoot, called a short shoot. These are borne on the long shoots or branches. Two types of cones are
also produced, male and female. The male cone is a few inches long, wormlike, and falls from the
tree after pollen is shed. The female cone, on the other hand, is about the size of a lemon, but egg
shaped. Like all true cedars, the cone is erect when mature, not pendant like the cones of pines. Two
years are required for maturation At maturity, the cone breaks apart. Seeds are carried on winged
structures, like gliders, which ensures a wide distribution. Seeds are not viable for long and must
germinate in cool temperatures. At these high elevations and low temperatures, growth must be slow
and require centuries to produce the majestic trees.
An old cedar is noble in bearing. No wonder it is an image of a mighty king-- regal, strong,
tenacious(4). It is also likened to an upright man(5). Noble as a timber, cedar is resistant to decay,
fragrant, and has a beautiful grain. Apparently it could not be harvested without a royal decree. This
was true for the building of Solomon's temple as well as the rebuilding of the temple in the days of
Ezra(6).
The first construction use in the Bible was for king's palaces(7). The most famous building of cedar,
though not the largest, was the temple built by Solomon In addition, Solomon built a magnificent
home for himself entirely out of cedar (I Kings 7); so grand was this building that it took thirteen
years to complete, six more years than the temple. Earlier, his father had built a house out of cedar
(II Samuel 7:2). The wealth of Solomon's reign, expressed in Semitic hyperbole, was indicated by
cedar of Lebanon being a common building material(8). Other references associate the use of cedar
with fleeting opulence(9). Like a Mercedes in every driveway, cedar was a status symbol during
Solomon's reign(10).
A lesser known use of cedar was in oblations for purification. One example is the cleansing for
leprosy(11). This offering required cedar wood. Details are not given, but it seems likely that small
pieces of cedar were used for their fragrance.
Timber, uprightness, purification, fragrance-to these aspects of cedar we must add a final, perhaps
obvious, image-- that of the most majestic plant(12). Solomon, the greatest botanist in the Bible,
spoke about plants from the cedar of Lebanon to the "hyssop" suggesting that the cedar was the
greatest(13). Was cedar of Lebanon the biggest tree known in Bible days?
Perhaps because it is widely planted or maybe because it is such a definite, well recognized symbol,
the lore of cedar of Lebanon rapidly spread to the New World with European settlers. When these
immigrants came to North America, in a day when Bible literacy was the norm, they called many
different trees cedars-whether or not they were true cedars or even in the same family. For example,
the widespread "red cedar" of Eastern North America is evergreen. And it does have a pleasant,
enduring fragrance. But the cone is a fleshy, berry-like structure (known as juniper berries and one of
the flavorings in gin), unlike the large spindle shaped cone of cedar of Lebanon. Nor is the name
restricted to trees. Many herbaceous plants have "cedar" as part of their name. Ironic that the fame
and planting of the cedar of Lebanon has expanded around the globe while the preservation of its
natural habitat has not.
Endnotes
1. The definitive work on the religious symbolism, wood anatomy, and other aspects of the biology
of the cedar is found in: Bikai, P. M. 1991. The Cedar of Lebanon: Archaeological and
Dendrochronological Perspectives. PhD Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
2. The story of the building of the temple and the contract with Hiram is recorded in I Kings 5 and II
Chronicles 2. Financial details are in 1 Kings 9:11.
3. Amos 2:9, Hosea 14:5.
4. Specifically, the king of Assyria (Ezekiel 31:3), and the Amorite (Amos 2:9). See also Jotham's
parable of the trees in Judges 9:15.
5. Psalm 92:12
6. Ezra 3:7
7. II Samuel 7:2 describes David's concern over his majestic house, "... while the ark of God remains
in a tent."
8. Kings 10:27
9. Jeremiah 22:7, 14, 15 and 23.
10. I Kings 10:27. The reference here no doubt refers to the timber of the cedar rather than to
planted trees. Cedars would probably not survive at the lower elevations of the Judaean Mountains.
11. Leviticus 14. See also Numbers 19:6 (the red heifer sacrifice). Both the leprosy and the red
heifer offerings were burned which would volatilize the cedar resin.
12. See also Numbers 24:6. The use of "aloes" (see Aloes) with cedars is confused ecology as they
would not grow together. However, Balaam, who was from the northern part of Mesopotamia, no
doubt saw cedar of Lebanon as he traveled south to serve Balaak.
13. 1 Kings 4:33.
THE SURPRISING CEDARS OF SYRIA
Cedrus libani, cedar of Lebanon, was the topic of a recent article in Plant Talk (17: 19-21) where
stands of this magnificent tree and restoration efforts in the nation of Lebanon were discussed. Cedar
of Lebanon is also found in Syria where a spectacular stand has recently been preserved as The
Cedar-Fir Protected Area. This site is east of the mountain resort town of Slenfeh in the coastal
range. Driving east from Slenfeh-and steeply up-the slope is covered with young cedars of Lebanon
and large specimens of Juniperus drupacea. As the specific epithet implies, this juniper has large
fruits, the size of plums. Understory plants include Cotoneaster nummularia, Veronica sp.,
Ranunculus sp. and spectacular populations of hellebore (Helleborus sp.).
On the west slope are vestiges of the Cilician fir (Abies cilicia). Some large specimens are present
and there is evidence of regeneration. In May, the male cones were abundant. Like other species of
firs, Cilician fir has a strong, pleasant fragrance.
The preserved area covers 1350 ha and ranges between 1100 to 1562 m above sea level. Large
cedars are located at the summit and for a short distance down the east slope which presents a
spectacular view of the Qa'ab Valley. The presence of a cedar forest on an east facing slope is hard
to understand until one realizes that the valley, now a patchwork of fields dramatically spread a
thousand meters below, was a wetland until about fifty years ago. Pierre Bikai, in his definitive study
of the archaeology and dendrology of cedar of Lebanon, points out that the moisture in the valley
may have enhanced the survival of the cedars far above. In the summer, clouds laden with coastal
moisture linger at the ridge, flow downward a short distance, and then dissipate in the heat. Most of
the rain comes in the winter, as expected. January rainfall is about 300 mm. Because of the clouds,
about 4 mm of rain is recorded in August while all of Syria to the east is parched.
Associated with the cedars are genera of trees that would be familiar to residents of Europe and
North America including maple (Acer hermoneum), ash (Fraxinus ornus), oak (Quercus
cedorum-an endemic), hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia), and hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis).
I visited the site twice, in May and July 1999. In May the spectacular peony (Paeonia corallina,
also known as P. muscula) was just beginning to flower. Cones on the cedar were still tight. It takes
at least two years for the cones to mature. In mid-July, the fruits of the peony are opening. They are
also spectacular. The follicles open to reveal bright-red seeds which turn a shiny blue. This is the time
the cedar cones begin to separate, revealing the tips of the wings of the seeds. Like all cedars and
firs, the cone disintegrates, releasing the winged seeds. Most of the cones I examined were severely
damaged by insects. Only a few had seeds.
Thankfully, this area is protected by the Syrian government. However, it is still grazed. The drought
of 1999 has been so severe that the government of Syria felt compelled to open all gazetted areas to
grazing because of the scarcity of fodder.
From: Musselman, L. J. 1999. Surprising Cedars of Syria. Plant Talk 19:6.
Thistles-Get the Point?
It is the second week of July in Jordan and thistles are the most conspicuous vegetation along roads
and in fields. At the edge of barley and wheat fields, a painful border of thistles guard the harvest.
Roadsides are often thickets of thistles. In fact, thistles and other armed plants are so common in this
part of the world that if you sent a first-time visitor on a hike through fields, he/she would quickly get
the point.
No